Siniora Food Industries of Palestine was facing a strategic dilemma. They had sold packaged meats for over 100 years in a challenging and risky environment. Siniora had carved a path of growth, expansion, and development, showcasing the power of endurance. Initially sold by local shopkeepers, the company’s products had gone from local to regional. Publicly traded on the Jordan exchange, Siniora had become a famous brand in Jordan, the Gulf region, UAE, and Saudi Arabia. They used export as well as wholly-owned subsidiary manufacturing facilities. Siniora management considers currently stalled profitability, possible strategies, and risk as the case opens. They dream of a bold move that could span the Asian continent and take the company to the next level. Of course, such a failure could be catastrophic. What are some strategies that would be suggested? Furthermore, can we devise a thorough action plan considering the geopolitical context?

Efficient and sustainable human resources are crucial for promoting development in emerging nations. Brazil’s education policy provides its citizens with widespread educational opportunities, resulting in high literacy rates. However, women with academic qualifications and skills often encounter significant barriers when transitioning from higher education to positions of empowerment, leading to an underutilisation of human capital. This study, conducted in 2024, gathered data from female students and staff at three Brazilian universities (the State University of Maranhãoo, the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, and the University of São Paulo) using a survey methodology to ascertain the barriers impeding women’s transition from higher education to empowerment. The data were analysed using Fuzzy Synthetic Evaluation (FSE), a soft computing technique, and it was identified that the most significant barriers revolve around women’s freedom and mobility. Additional challenges include gender norms, family responsibilities, violence and harassment, socio-cultural constraints, and financial limitations. The study offers practical recommendations such as organising awareness programmes and integrating digital technology to enhance workplace safety, thereby addressing these barriers. The findings contribute both practically and theoretically to the more effective utilisation of human resources in Brazil. These insights are particularly valuable for stakeholders, including government bodies, managers, and academic institutions, in fostering gender equality and empowering women in the workforce.

Active transparency is developed through the provision of information by public administrations. However, for this information to be reusable, it must be offered through free licenses and open formats, two characteristics present in open data. This paper aims to investigate the disclosure of information associated with active transparency that Spanish autonomous communities performed through open data in December 2023, ten years after the approval of Law 19/2013 on transparency, access to public information, and good governance, indicating their performance for comparison among them. Despite the modest magnitude of the observed scores, the disparities among the autonomous communities are substantial. Consequently, the cluster analysis identifies distinct groups of communities, which have been designated as “advanced”, “intermediate”, and “lagging”. Furthermore, while the balance between the accounting data block and the information block pertaining to the governors and the destination of spending is achieved for two-thirds of the autonomous communities, the remaining third exhibits a notable dearth of attention to accounting information.

Background: Team viability, understood as the ability to adapt and collaborate effectively over time, is a key concept in organizational literature. In Peru, where changes are constant, culturally adapted tools are needed for its measurement. Objective: To translate and validate a team viability scale for Peruvian workers. Methods: An instrumental design was used with 290 public sector employees (M = 34.61; SD = 9.2). The translation followed a cultural adaptation process, and validity was assessed through descriptive, correlational, and confirmatory factor analysis. Results: Confirmatory factor analysis supported a unidimensional structure with excellent fit indices (CFI and TLI > 0.99, RMSEA and SRMR < 0.01). The scale showed high invariance across gender and good internal consistency (α = 0.90). Conclusions: The validated scale is a reliable tool for measuring team viability in Peru. Its implementation can enhance human resource management and improve collaboration in the public sector.

This study investigates the role of work–family conflict (WFC), family–work conflict (FWC), and two dimensions of burnout (emotional exhaustion and cynicism) in mediating the relationships between work demands and job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and turnover intention across a Middle Eastern country and a European country. The study uses two samples including 263 full-time employees from both countries. The quantitative analysis using structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that higher levels of work–family conflict (WFC), and family–work conflict (FWC) were associated with lower levels of job satisfaction and life satisfaction. Additionally, burnout showed negative effects on job and life satisfaction, and a positive relationship with turnover intentions across nations. Differences were also found between country samples, with employed women from the Middle Eastern country experiencing higher dual-role conflict and lower satisfaction.

The modern literature examines the debate concerning the influence of modern marketing services in schools. In this context, the need arises to evaluate how educational marketing finds resonance in secondary schools and how this is beneficial to the school community. This study examined the mediating role of educational marketing in schools, focusing on whether schools adopt its principles with consideration for the needs of students and parents and whether these efforts have been embraced by the entire school community. Data were collected from 350 teachers who work in public schools in Greece. t-tests were used to test the hypotheses under review. The results detected a strong relationship between modern marketing services and the educational process.

The increasing moral challenges facing organizations flag the significance of ethical leadership. Despite the significance of promoting moral behavior, the existing literature has scarcely looked at ethical leadership in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and studied its outcomes beyond the organization. Therefore, this study investigated the relationship between ethical leadership and community engagement moderated by the treatment of SMEs as suppliers and customers. The study argues that ethical leadership is important in helping SMEs execute community engagement activities, but that this depends on external factors. When entrepreneurs are treated unfairly by the powerful larger corporates, they will not be able to execute their activities. We conducted a quantitative study to answer the research objective and test the hypotheses. The final sample consisted of 276 participants, and the data were analyzed by using multiple hierarchical regression. The study found that ethical leadership predicted community engagement. However, the moderating role of the treatment of SMEs as suppliers and buyers on the role of ethical leadership and community engagement was not significant. The study provides insights on ethical leadership in the context of community engagement and buyer–supplier relationships. Also, the study shows that SMEs continue practicing ethical leadership and community engagement, regardless of how they are treated as suppliers and buyers by large companies, alluding to the importance of ethical leadership. Lastly, the study provides insights into the interactions between leadership and community engagement in the context of buyer–supplier power asymmetry.

Public sector entrepreneurship (PSE) is a growing area of knowledge that studies the application of innovative activities and processes to enhance public service quality. This can ultimately affect the public organization’s performance and the country’s economic success and growth. Even though PSE has been studied through the lenses of several academic disciplines, its assumptions are often based on the insights derived from research on entrepreneurship in the private sector. The theories of public entrepreneurship are scattered throughout the literature, while empirical research is still scarce. There exists a need to build a conceptual characterization that distinguishes its unique indicative dimensions. This paper aims to collect and summarize some of the definitions, theories, dimensions, and determinants of public sector entrepreneurship and propose avenues for future empirical research. It is a literature review using the PRISMA methodology to examine public sector entrepreneurship, systematically collecting and synthesizing previous research. This approach yielded 55 publications, which were used as sources for developing a comprehensive conceptualization of PSE. The paper’s contribution is reflected in this review and analysis, as well as its suggestions for future research topics and empirical methods in this developing area of knowledge.

During the COVID-19, Muslim entrepreneurs had to adapt to remain resilient. These Muslim entrepreneurs can rely on entrepreneurial personality and skill traits to survive a crisis. This paper aims to expand the analysis of the several contributing factors to the resiliency of small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) managed by Muslim entrepreneurs, as identified in various scholarly publications. Additionally, this study emphasises the significance of entrepreneurial personality and skill traits, investigates the mediating role of entrepreneurial orientation on the link between entrepreneurial traits and SME resilience, and explores the moderating effects of Muslim religiosity. Furthermore, it delves into specific Islamic principles such as “ikhtiar” (effort) and “tawakkal” (reliance on God), which contribute to the resilience of Muslim entrepreneurs. This study centres on Muslim business owners of small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in West Sumatra. The final sample obtained was 452 Muslim entrepreneurs. This research was conducted in 2021, at the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings indicate that entrepreneurial traits influence the resiliency of Muslim entrepreneurs in two distinct ways: directly and indirectly via entrepreneurial orientation. This research advances the entrepreneurial literature in three ways. First, research on entrepreneurial resilience is extended, considering the different dimensions of entrepreneurial personality and traits (negotiation skills, risk-taking, optimism, locus of control, and need for achievement). Second, this study explores the mediating role of entrepreneurial orientation on the relationship between entrepreneurial personality and skill traits toward entrepreneurial resilience. Finally, this study specifically discusses Muslim entrepreneurs as research respondents.

Customer relationship management (CRM) has become a critical strategy for higher education institutions (HEIs) to enhance student engagement, institutional efficiency, and digital transformation. Despite its growing adoption, the evolution of CRM research in HEIs, including key contributors, dominant themes, and emerging trends, remains underexplored. This study conducts a bibliometric analysis of Scopus-indexed publications (2014–2024) to map the intellectual landscape of CRM research in higher education. Using Biblioshiny with Bibliometrix version 4.0 and VOSviewer version 1.6.20, this study analyzes publication trends, influential authors and institutions, keyword networks, and thematic developments. The findings indicate a transition from early research on service quality and academic reputation to advanced themes such as AI-driven CRM strategies, multi-channel communication, and social media analytics. While the United Kingdom, India, and Indonesia emerge as leading contributors, gaps persist in cross-cultural CRM applications, the integration of emerging technologies, and the development of standardized evaluation frameworks. This study contributes to CRM scholarship by mapping research trajectories, identifying underexplored areas, and offering actionable insights for future studies. It highlights the expanding role of CRM beyond student engagement, encompassing education quality, labor market, employment growth, technological progress and AI-driven decision-making. These findings emphasize the need for interdisciplinary approaches and robust academic performance to maximize CRM’s strategic potential in higher education.

The Impostor Phenomenon (IP) is a widespread psychological phenomenon impacting the personal and professional experiences of individuals. This study aims to examine the impact of the IP on employee well-being, performance, and job satisfaction within Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Lebanon. Moreover, this study explores if these effects vary depending on individuals’ personality types, such as introverted or extroverted, and if perceived organizational support (POS) plays a moderating role in these relationships. The research employed a mono-method quantitative approach to collect data from a sample of 155 faculty and staff employees using an online structured survey. Data were statistically analyzed using SPSS software. The findings obtained indicate that higher impostorism levels were linked to lower employee well-being, job satisfaction, and self-assessed job performance. Introverts showed a negative association between impostorism and well-being, while extroverts had significant negative associations with both job satisfaction and performance. POS only moderately influenced the association between impostorism and job satisfaction. The significance of the IP’s impacts on employee outcomes among different personality types is emphasized in this study. Furthermore, the moderating role played by POS highlighted the importance of organizational efforts in addressing employees’ experiences. This study provided insights to Human Resources (HR) professionals in Lebanon’s Higher Education Institutions to develop targeted interventions addressing IP experiences and personality types and promoting mental wellness and better job satisfaction and performance, and thus better organizational outcomes.

In the scientific literature on tourism, a set of variables is frequently utilized. The objective of this study is to analyze the scenario of scientific publications on these variables between 2000 and 2023. This analysis employs a bibliometric approach, utilizing data collected from the Scopus database. The bibliometric method was employed, with a focus on five variables (tourism destination, competitiveness, image, quality, and satisfaction) and five indicators (author, year, country, journal, and affiliation) essential for mapping research patterns and identifying key trends in the field of tourism. The findings demonstrate that the five variables under examination are inherently interrelated. The image of the destination is of particular importance, as it influences the quality of life of residents and the experiences of tourists, which in turn affects the competitiveness of the destination. The results also demonstrate the multidimensional nature of these variables in shaping tourism destination dynamics. This study underscores the value of bibliometric analysis as a strategic tool for synthesizing and deepening tourism literature. The findings not only highlight the primary research contributions and trends but also identify gaps and opportunities for future research, thereby promoting continuous advancement in tourism knowledge and best practices.

Generative Artificial Intelligence (GAI) is emerging as a promising tool with which to improve strategic decision-making in a business environment characterized by increasing complexity. There are external and internal factors that are part of the success of entrepreneurial initiatives. Relevant factors that make decision-making effective include the technological environment, as an external factor, and innovation, as an internal factor. Methods: This study reviews the existing literature on implementing GAI in business decision-making. It assesses its short-, medium- and long-term effects, considering the interaction between GAI and human judgment. Challenges related to uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity are examined, and the relevant literature is reviewed to understand these aspects comprehensively. Results: The review shows that, despite the advanced capabilities of GAI to analyze data and generate patterns, human judgment remains crucial in situations of high uncertainty. The results suggest that combining GAI with human expertise can improve the accuracy and efficiency of strategic decision-making by integrating the strengths of both parties. Conclusions: The implementation of GAI can offer significant improvements in the efficiency and accuracy of business decisions. However, human judgment and experience remain essential, especially in uncertain contexts. The key to maximizing the benefits of GAI lies in finding the right balance between artificial intelligence and human capital.

Purpose: This study examines the entrepreneurial transformation within kibbutzim (organizations historically rooted in collectivist ideals) as they adapt to economic and cultural shifts. Positioned as unique socioeconomic models, kibbutzim provide a compelling context for understanding social intrapreneurship, defined as entrepreneurial behaviors emerging within structured communal settings. The study explores how tensions between different community values impact the motivation to establish a new business. Methods: A paper-based survey was distributed to 256 entrepreneurs. Motivation is assessed using the push/pull theory. Self-efficacy is proposed as a mediator between the type of kibbutz (collective or privatized) and motivational factors, with proactive personality acting as a moderator of the relationship between kibbutz type and self-efficacy. Findings: The results indicate that although entrepreneurs from both types of kibbutzim exhibit lower pull motivators compared to non-kibbutz members, privatized kibbutz entrepreneurs display a higher level of push motivation than the other groups. Additionally, self-efficacy mediates the relationship between collective kibbutz members and pull motivation and between privatized kibbutz members and push motivation, but only for entrepreneurs with low levels of proactive personality traits. Conclusions: The findings underscore the influence of cultural tensions and values on entrepreneurial behaviors, offering insights into the interplay between community context and individual agency.

Coopetition, the strategic blend of competition and collaboration, has emerged as a critical strategy for firms navigating today’s interconnected and resource-constrained global economy. While coopetition networks offer substantial benefits, such as fostering innovation, market expansion, and scalability, they are fraught with challenges like resource-sharing risks, trust deficits, and the inherent tension between collaboration and competition. Despite these hurdles, the transformative potential of technology in enabling and enhancing coopetition networks remains underexplored. This study addresses this gap by integrating Service-Dominant Logic (S-D Logic) and institutional work to propose a comprehensive framework for technology-driven coopetition networks. It identifies seven systemic building blocks—coopetition actors, resource integration, service exchange, institutions, nested ecosystems, operand technologies, and operant technologies—that facilitate sustainable value co-creation. These components enable firms to navigate dynamic market conditions by fostering trust, collaboration, and innovation. This research emphasizes technology’s pivotal role as a transformative enabler and strategic driver, enabling real-time interaction, seamless resource integration, and institutional alignment. Institutional work is highlighted as essential for managing regulatory, normative, and cognitive dimensions to ensure the Adaptability and longevity of coopetition ecosystems. By providing actionable insights into the design and management of resilient, technology-driven coopetition networks, this study offers a roadmap for sustainable and equitable value distribution. It contributes to the evolving discourse on strategic business networks, empowering organizations to harness the power of coopetition in an increasingly complex global marketplace.

Businesses are influenced by the cyclical nature of economic development and distinct stages in the corporate life cycle. Accurate early-warning mechanisms are crucial to mitigating bankruptcy risk, enabling timely rescue measures. This article analyses the reliability of various bankruptcy prediction models, including those by Kliestik et al., Poznanski, the modified Zmijewski, Jakubik–Teply, and Virag–Hajdu, across corporate life cycle stages. Reliability was assessed using five metrics: accuracy, balanced accuracy, F1 and F2 scores, and the Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC). The sample included over 5000 SMEs from Central Europe, with financial data from 2022. The findings reveal a U-shaped trend in financial distress risk, with start-ups and declining enterprises facing the highest risks. The results indicate that the Kliestik et al. model shows consistent reliability across all life cycle stages, while the Poznanski model shows more variability. Conversely, the Virag–Hajdu model exhibits significant variability in reliability, with its best performance observed during the Decline stage. The modified Zmijewski and Jakubik–Teply models show lower MCC values overall, with the modified Zmijewski model performing better at predicting the financial distress of mature shake-out firms compared to other stages.

In the broader context of quality management, testing and calibration laboratories are increasingly adopting ISO/IEC 17025 accreditation as a key benchmark for achieving operational excellence. This management system standard outlines the essential requirements laboratories must meet to demonstrate their technical competence and produce accurate, reliable results. This study aims to identify and validate the Critical Success Factors (CSFs) for effective ISO/IEC 17025 implementation. It begins with a systematic literature review focusing primarily on ISO/IEC 17025, supplemented by insights from other established standards such as ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 to enrich the findings. This study employed an interview-based qualitative approach to validate and refine the identified CSFs. This entailed conducting 34 semi-structured interviews with a diverse group of industry professionals—including technical managers, quality managers, auditors, and clients—from calibration, chemical, and civil engineering testing laboratories. The findings led to the establishment of 16 CSFs, including leadership and strategic commitment, motivation for accreditation, allocation of financial and organizational resources, and the provision of technical infrastructure. Also crucial are the management of human resources—competency, training, and engagement—and key quality management elements such as effective system design, method verification, measurement traceability, quality assurance, control, and performance improvement. Additional factors include fostering a quality-oriented culture, ensuring operational integrity and impartiality, managing supplier relationships, focusing on customer needs, and adhering to regulatory compliance. Recognizing these CSFs enables organizations to focus on pivotal areas, streamline monitoring processes, and align with strategic objectives. This study represents the first in-depth exploration into the CSFs for ISO/IEC 17025 implementation within testing and calibration laboratories, thereby contributing directly to enhancing their quality and operational performance.

This paper is aimed at understanding the possibility of applying ergonomics in the reorganisation of the work environment with the aim to improve working conditions and to increase the productivity of the examined workplace in an industrial company. Due to constant changes in markets, industrial companies are forced to seek new methods and paradigms for planning and managing innovations in order to ensure their competitiveness. An essential part of this process is the emphasis on improving production processes, where various methods with different focuses can be used. These methods not only optimise work processes, but also allow companies to minimise the resources needed for production and increase overall productivity. Another useful tool for industrial enterprises can be ergonomic rationalisation. The importance of ergonomics in improving employee working conditions and production process efficiency has been the subject of studies promoting various concepts. This study focuses in particular on examining the possibility of extending the outputs obtained by the REFA method to outputs obtained through ergonomic analysis. To achieve the objectives of the paper, the case study method was chosen, given that it was necessary to apply the REFA method in combination with ergonomic rationalisation in the specific conditions of the industrial company for the possibility of identifying bottlenecks in the production process from the point of view of its productivity, efficiency, and workforce involvement. Based on the results, it was possible to propose measures to increase the efficiency of the production process while respecting the principles of ergonomics. As part of the solution, the author team concluded that the findings obtained by combining both methods do not show significant differences, but rather complement each other and provide a broader view of the issue under study. At the same time, it can be stated that the solution cannot be considered definitive due to possible dynamic changes in the industrial environment (changes in the composition of the workforce and the scale of production and evolving technology, e.g., AI). The subject of future research will be to adapt the applied combination of methods so that it is universally applicable to any industrial sector, with minimal required adjustments to meet the specifics of individual industries.

The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of the two determinants of the technology acceptance model (TAM3), perceived ease of use (PEOU), and perceived usefulness (PU) on auditors’ intention to adopt and use blockchain technology (BT) in Lebanon. This study also aims to investigate the moderating role of age on these associations to determine the antecedents of PU and PEOU. A sample of 332 auditors working in Lebanon was used to collect data and the analysis was conducted using the third version of partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS3-SEM). Results show that perception of external control and computer self-efficacy significantly affect the PEOU. Job relevance and output quality are PU antecedents and positively influence the variable. In addition, PEOU and PU have a significant positive impact on auditors’ intention to adopt BT. This shows that auditors in Lebanon are more inclined to adopt BT if they feel that BT does not require substantial effort and that BT provides tangible benefits to their work. According to the researchers’ knowledge, this study is the first to examine auditors’ perception of using BT in one of the Middle Eastern countries, Lebanon, and the first to investigate the moderating role of age on the relationship between TAM3 determinants and auditors’ intention to adopt BT. In addition, this study highlights the practical implications of adopting BT in auditing in Lebanon by pinpointing the need for training programs, collaboration between auditors and other departments, developing regulatory frameworks to enhance efficiency, and organizing awareness and educational campaigns. Additionally, investments in infrastructure are critical to facilitate the smooth implementation and adoption of BT. Furthermore, audit firms should organize workshops to educate auditors on the application and the benefits of BT, invest in upgrading the IT systems to be compatible with BT platforms, and provide case studies and pilot projects to promote confidence in BT adoption.

This research examines the proposition that enhancing sustainable innovation can be particularly effective when the focus is on strategy, machine learning, and digitalization. The study specifically targets the complex interactions among strategic alignment (SA), sustainability-oriented innovation (SOI), and digital transformation (DT) within small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Saudi Arabia, particularly within the service sector. A moderated mediation framework was constructed to analyze the influence of SA on SOI, the mediating role of DT, and the moderating effect of strategic orientation (SO). Data were collected through structured surveys from 339 SMEs using a quantitative research design and a cross-sectional methodology. The partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique was employed to validate the proposed framework and hypotheses. The results indicate that SA significantly boosts SOI, with DT acting as a strong mediator in this connection. Furthermore, SO moderates the relationships between SA and SOI, SA and DT, and DT and SOI, highlighting its essential role in shaping the dynamics of sustainable innovation. These findings emphasize the necessity of aligning strategic initiatives with digital advancements to foster innovation that achieves a balance among economic, social, and environmental objectives. This study contributes to existing literature by filling the research gap regarding SOI and DT in Saudi SMEs and offers practical insights for SMEs facing sustainability challenges. Future research should delve deeper into digital technology configurations, industry-specific contexts, and cross-national applications to improve the applicability of these findings.

To understand how telework is perceived among occupational groups with different work tasks within the same company, this qualitative study aimed to explore how managers and employees experience telework in relation to well-being, individual performance, and the work environment. This qualitative study used a phenomenographic approach. Fourteen online interviews, comprising seven managers and seven employees from the same industrial company, were conducted between February 2022 and September 2023. The data were analyzed inductively to capture variations in telework perceptions. The findings showed that telework is not universally beneficial or challenging; its effectiveness depends on contextual factors such as team setting, job role, type of work, and organizational culture. Telework benefits both employees and managers engaged in individual tasks (e.g., reading, drafting contracts, and preparing reports) or global collaborations, including improved well-being, work–life balance, and overall performance. However, starting with an office-based period that facilitated team cohesion, faster learning, and a deeper understanding of the organizational culture. Face-to-face onsite work could be time-consuming and, therefore, stressful for some, but it is time-saving for others. Onsite employees and managers faced increased workloads when colleagues teleworked, as employees tended to rely more on colleagues physically present in the office. This research highlights the need for tailored strategies to enhance the advantages of telework while reducing its challenges. It contributes to existing research by providing nuanced insights into the relationship between telework and occupational groups within an industrial setting and offering practical guidance for telework in this field.

This study investigates the transformative capacity of artificial intelligence (AI) in improving financial accountability and governance in the public sector. The study aims to explore the strategic potential and constraints of AI integration, especially as fiscal systems become more complex and public expectations for transparency increase. This study employs a qualitative case study methodology to analyze three countries, which are Estonia, Singapore, and Finland. These countries are renowned for their innovative use of AI in public administration. The data collection tools included an extensive review of the literature, governmental publications, case studies, and public feedback. The study reveals that AI-driven solutions such as predictive analytics, fraud detection systems, and automated reporting significantly improve operational efficiency, transparency, and decision making. However, challenges such as algorithmic bias, data privacy issues, and the need for strong ethical guidelines still exist, and these could hinder the equitable use of AI. The study emphasizes the importance of aligning technological progress with democratic values and ethical governance by addressing these problems. The study also enhances the dialog around AI’s role in public administration. It provides practical recommendations for policymakers who seek to use AI wisely to promote public trust, improve efficiency, and ensure accountability in governance. Future research should focus on enhancing ethical frameworks and investigating scalable solutions to overcome the social and technical challenges of AI integration.

Blockchain was introduced in 2008, yet it remains poorly defined over a decade later. Despite the lack of a universally accepted definition, its utility continues to be widely advocated. However, a function or feature can only be classified as a technology if it addresses a specific human discomfort. A mere combination of ambiguous functionalities without a clear purpose cannot be considered a technology. This paper investigates whether blockchain is an appropriate term for a specific technology or merely an ambiguous amalgamation of features. It further argues that technologies with analogous functionalities should be classified as distinct technologies if their applications differ. Through a literature review of the criteria for defining a technology, this paper finds that blockchain does not meet these requirements. Additionally, existing definitions of blockchain often fail to meet proper criteria or inaccurately describe its functionality. In the academic context, the term “blockchain technology” is a clear misnomer that should be discouraged. The findings can guide decision making for stakeholders, including companies, regulators, and legislators involved in the virtual asset market.

The context for the study reported here is the Australian local government sector, specifically rural and regional councils that operate in isolated and remote areas with limited staffing and resources. Within this sector, 4IR technologies are transforming service delivery, jobs, and skill requirements. The purpose of this study is to examine how public sector organisations operating within a regulated and not-for-profit context and with constraints over HRM choices manage the challenges of the 4IR technologies on their workforce. Information from the study was sourced from semi-structured interviews with council managers and CEOs, independent experts familiar with the sector, and council documents. Triangulation of the information was applied to develop themes linked to workforce management, especially innovative HRM programs that were shaped by the constraints that councils faced in the management of their workforce. The findings indicate that regional and rural councils were able to manage the impact of 4IR technologies on their workforces through programs that drew on internal staff development and inter-council resource sharing.