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Black Identity in Action: Examining Ethnic and Racial Identity, Racial Discrimination, and Collective Action Among Black Individuals
Ross B.Z., Lee F., Cokley K.
Q1
This paper examines the factors that contribute to Black participants’ use of collective action strategies (i.e., activism and active coping) to combat experiences of racial discrimination. Previously, researchers have examined racial discrimination, ethnic identity, and racial identity in separate models from one another. We propose that ethnic and racial identity both mediate the relationship between racial discrimination and collective action, such that both ethnic and racial identity explain Black individuals’ engagement in activism and active coping after discriminatory experiences. We surveyed 313 Black individuals about their experiences and conducted a parallel mediation analysis to test our hypotheses. The results indicate that, as predicted, ethnic and racial identity mediated the relationship between racial discrimination, activism, and active coping. Overall, the findings from this study have theoretical and practical implications for how ethnic and racial identity can be used to improve the well-being of individuals in the African diaspora.
Black Emerging Adult Preventive Care: The Role of Health Care System Distrust, Trust in Physician, and Usual Source of Care
Wynn A., Hood K.B.
Q1
This study examined the role of trust in one's physician and usual source of care on the relationship between health care system distrust and receipt of preventive services among Black emerging adults. The researchers surveyed 323 Black emerging adults. This cross-sectional study design utilized a moderated moderation in IBM SPSS 28 using Hayes’ (2020) PROCESS macro (Model 3). Results revealed that Black emerging adults who did not have a usual source of care and had high trust in their physician, had increased preventive service receipt when health care system distrust was low. Further, this relation was not significant for those with a usual source of care. Findings indicated interventions should focus on establishing interpersonal trust with one’s physician to increase Black emerging adults’ engagement in care. Trust in one's own physician could increase engagement in those who do not have a regular site of care, even when distrust in the health care system is high.
Experiences of Black Women Understanding Racial Microaggressions and Identifying Replenishing Healing Practices
Wong K.L., Jackson M.A., Holman A., Ponterotto J.G.
Q1
The pervasive and chronic racism of microaggressions (subtle, frequent, and negative slights that communicate messages of inferiority) has harmful psychological impacts for Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC), which are exacerbated for Black women whose intersecting racial and gender identities expose them to a unique oppressive reality. Some studies have investigated coping responses of Black women. However, research to date is limited in understanding how they transcend the harmful weathering burden of continually navigating gendered racial microaggressions and restore their wellness through healing practices. The present phenomenological study, grounded in constructivist and indigenous paradigms, was conducted by and for Black women with 13 participants and two co-facilitators. In two-part focus groups, they explored their experiences of (a) psychoeducational consciousness raising toward validating and deconstructing shared and unique microaggressions, and (b) replenishing healing. Results revealed themes, with sample quotes, describing their collective process of discerning psychoeducational prompts of microaggression taxonomies and healing strategies, including aspects that did and did not describe their experiences. Findings yielded evolved definitions of and practices for replenishing healing from microaggressions.
The Strong Black Woman Schema and Mental Health: Examining the Role of Personal Mastery
Jones M.K., Hill-Jarrett T.G., Jean-Ceide C.
Q1
Research has established a direct link between endorsement of the Strong Black Woman (SBW) schema and negative mental health outcomes. However, few have examined the factors that may explain this association. To address this gap in the literature, we examined personal mastery as a mediator of the relationship between endorsement of the SBW schema and negative mental health outcomes in a sample of 135 Black women. We also investigated this mediational pathway among subcomponents of the SBW schema: emotional strength, independence, and caretaking. We found that personal mastery mediated the association between endorsement of the SBW schema and negative mental health outcomes: greater endorsement of the SBW schema was associated with lower mastery, and subsequently more anxiety and depressive symptoms. We identified a similar pattern of results when testing two SBW schema subcomponents: emotional strength and caretaking. Study findings further evidence the deleterious impact of the SBW schema on Black women’s mental health, while illuminating one explanatory factor in this relationship—personal mastery. We conclude by discussing areas for future research and practice with Black women.
On Being Black and Out of the Closet: Exploring Moderators of Black Queer Sexual Orientation Disclosure
Roberts T.S.
Q1
Engagement and perceived community belonging has vast benefits on the well-being of Black queer adults (i.e., identifying as both Black and a sexual or gender minority). However, little is known about the intersectional experiences of Black queer individuals concerning engagement and belonging in marginalized communities. The present study investigated the association of community engagement and sexual orientation disclosure, alongside the moderating roles of identity salience (racial salience and queer salience) and perceived community belonging (racial belonging and queer belonging), with a national sample of 1026 Black queer adults from the Social Justice Sexuality Project. Regression analyses found community engagement was associated with increased sexual orientation disclosure for Black queer adults who reported average-to-high perceived racial community belonging. Prominent levels of racial community engagement were associated with less sexual orientation disclosure for Black queer adults with varying perceived queer community belonging. These findings highlight the necessity of examining the role of perceived community belonging and identity salience with Black queer adults’ sexual orientation disclosure. Research, policy, and practice implications are further discussed.
The Relationship Between the Imposter Phenomenon and Mental Health in Black Graduate Students: Examining Moderating Effects of Perceived Social Support
Sanders S.M., Williams T.R., Gao F., Muwele C., Mitchell J.M., Mitchell T.
Q1
Research has established a positive relationship between the impostor phenomenon and poor mental health outcomes among Black graduate students. However, the literature is scarce on psychosocial factors that could moderate this relationship. The present study investigated Black graduate students’ ( N = 200) experiences of impostorism and whether perceived social support moderated the relationship between impostor phenomenon and symptoms of depression or anxiety. The findings suggested perceived social support moderated the relationship between impostor feelings and both anxiety and depression. The findings suggested that, for the imposter phenomenon-anxiety relation, family social support weakened the association. For the imposter phenomenon-depression relation, total social support, family social support, and significant other social support weakened the association. These findings have important implications for both educational and clinical practice. For graduate programs, they must be aware of the effects imposter syndrome has on Black students and offer supportive environments to these students. For mental health professionals, the findings of this study should inform their work with Black graduate students, specifically intervention decisions to strengthen social support and sense of community.
End of the Year: 50th Anniversary Reflections
Vandiver B.J.
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Reflections on My Experiences as Editor-In-Chief of the Journal of Black Psychology
Cokley K.
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In this commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the Journal of Black Psychology (JBP), this editorial presents the former editor-in-chief’s reflections and observations of his time as Editor-in-Chief. The current author notes the challenges of racist perceptions of JBP, reinforcing high standards, and raising the impact factor. He identifies signature articles published during his tenure and discusses the future of JBP.
The Association of Sleep Disturbance, Depression, and Kin Social Support With the College Adjustment of African American Students: A Moderated Mediation Model
Taylor R.D., Bradford J., Joshi C., Olaniyan M., Gebre A.
Q1
This investigation examined whether the indirect association of sleep disturbance with college adjustment through depression was moderated by kin social support among African American college students. The study was grounded in the Integrative Model for the Study of Developmental Competencies in Minority Children (IM), which maintains that kin support promotes adaptive functioning of ethnic minority children and adults and moderates the effects of stressful experiences on adjustment. The hypotheses were assessed with online questionnaires administered to 152 African American college students (83% female, Mage = 21.7, SDage = 4.6). The findings revealed a significant indirect effect of sleep disturbance on college adjustment through depressive symptoms. Kin support moderated indirect effect, such that sleep disturbance was significantly associated with college adjustment through depressive symptoms, at low and moderate, but not high levels of kin support. The results suggest that it may be beneficial to incorporate sleep education among the student services administered on campuses. Developing mechanisms to link family and other sources of support with students’ campus life may be important for African American college students’ adjustment.
A Thematic Analysis of Low-Income African American Fathers’ Meta-Emotion Interview Responses
Brown D.W., Bryant S., Lozada F.T., Bocknek E., Brophy-Herb H.
Q1
This study explored African American fathers’ beliefs about and experiences with their own and their children’s negative emotions. Participants included 58 African American fathers in the Midwestern region of the United States between the ages of 29 and 40 ( M age = 30.94). Participants completed the Meta-Emotion Interview, a semi-structured interview of parents’ and their children’s negative emotion. A theoretical thematic analysis of participants’ responses to a subset of Meta-Emotion Interview questions about sadness and anger was conducted. Five themes of African American fathers’ beliefs about and experiences with their own and their children’s negative emotions were interpreted: (1) responsibility for children’s emotions, (2) complex relationship with anger, (3) reckoning negative emotions, (4) children at the center, and (5) actively working through emotions. Taken together, these five themes demonstrate that African American fathers recognize the inherent value of negative emotions while navigating the potential harm these emotions may bring to self and others. Furthermore, the findings provide insight into the role of African American fathers in parental emotion socialization processes.
Vicarious Experiences with Police Violence: Examining Psychosocial Factors that Predict Black Individuals’ Negative Affect and Intentions to Engage in Collective Action
Sheehan B.E., Totonchi D.A., Derlega V.J.
Q1
In the present study, we examined whether willingness to participate in collective action and feelings of negative affect in response to the police killing of a Black man can be explained by individual differences in racial identity, identification with the shooting victim, and feeling personally threatened by the shooting incident. Participants ( N = 328 Black university students) completed online questionnaires after reading one of two non-fictional vignettes of a fatal police shooting of a Black American. Three components of racial identity were assessed (racial centrality, private regard, and public regard). Results indicated that all three racial identity variables predicted negative affect through a sequence of greater identification with the shooting victim and concerns about personal threat. When predicting collective action, however, only racial centrality predicted the outcome via these sequential mediators. Implications for research and theory on vicarious racism and the need for mental health resources in communities are discussed.
A Single-Session Wellness Initiative for Black College Women: Integrating Expressive Arts, Spirituality, and Political Resistance
Pierce R., Parker J.S.
Q1
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to understand how four Black women undergraduate students experienced a single-session wellness initiative that integrated expressive arts, spirituality, and political resistance. After participating in the group wellness session, the researchers conducted individual interviews with each participant to understand their interpretation of their paintings and their perceptions of the expressive arts group. All interviews were transcribed verbatim, and data were analyzed using a structured coding process. Three themes emerged from the cross-case analysis of the semi-structured interviews: (1) Black Women Connecting, (2) Appreciation for the Session Topic, and (3) Systemic Efforts to Promote Black Women’s Wellness. Conducting this study with undergraduate Black women from a predominantly white institution (PWI) yields recommendations for providing culturally responsive wellness programming at university counseling centers.
Black, Low-Income Undergraduates’ Perceptions of Course-Related Factors Associated With Reduced Academic Stress at a Predominantly White Institution
Clark J.C., Sutherland B., Chute N.C., Roehrig A.D.
Q1
Academic stress is a common struggle for learners of all ages. High levels of academic stress can sometimes relate to lower academic outcomes and higher attrition rates. Black college students at predominantly White institutions (PWIs) face unique stressors such as discrimination and imposter syndrome. Being low-income can carry added stressors associated with a lack of access to resources. Prior literature indicates that support and stronger relationships with faculty are associated with lower stress levels and higher academic success. The purpose of this study was to develop a better understanding of course-related factors that reduce academic stress among Black, low-income undergraduates at a PWI. Interviews with 19 Black undergraduates recruited from a department that servees low-income, first-generation students revealed a set of interrelated factors that produce greater feelings of support, relatedness, and competence, which aligns with a reduction in stressful experiences. A thematic analysis was used to create descriptive categories and produce a visual representation of these factors. Implications for university staff and faculty are discussed.
Impostor Phenomenon, Group Stereotype Endorsement, and Black College Women’s Mental Health
Hill L., Vera E.M.
Q1
The present research expands on impostor phenomenon (IP) literature by highlighting the role of susceptibility to group stereotype endorsement and IP on the mental health experiences of Black college women attending predominantly White institutions (PWIs). Specifically, the following study seeks to determine if there is an indirect effect between susceptibility to group stereotype endorsement and depression and anxiety via IP for these students. A sample of 414 Black college women attending PWIs completed an online survey including a demographic questionnaire, the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (Clance, 1985), a modified version of Shapiro’s Multi-Threat Framework Scale (Shapiro, 2011), and the Mental Health Inventory-18 (Veit & Ware, 1983; Weinstein et al., 1989). The findings of the data analyses indicated that there is an indirect effect on susceptibility to group stereotype endorsement and depression and anxiety via IP. These findings highlight the need to examine contextual factors on IP and mental health outcomes for Black women students. The discussion section offers recommendations for preventing and responding to IP with this population.
Sister Outsider: Superwoman Schema, Emotion Regulation, and Psychological Distress Among Black College Women
Nelson T., Cherry M.
Q1
Black women may adhere to the Superwoman Schema (SWS), which may be associated with psychological distress in particular contexts. Emotion regulation may be an important factor in understanding the relationship between SWS and psychological distress. In this cross-sectional study of 167 college Black women, we examined the relationship between dimensions of SWS and psychological distress. We also investigated if two aspects of emotion regulation, expressive suppression, and cognitive reappraisal, mediated these relationships. Findings indicated that all dimensions of SWS were positively associated with psychological distress. Expressive suppression mediated these relationships for all dimensions except for an obligation to suppress emotions and an obligation to help others. However, the intense motivation to succeed, despite limited resources, was positively associated with cognitive reappraisal, which was inversely associated with psychological distress. Findings underscore the complex nature of the Superwoman Schema and highlight the importance of understanding and addressing emotional regulation strategies in clinical settings to support Black women’s mental well-being effectively.
Perceptions of Burnout Among Black Pastors of Small Churches: A Phenomenological Study
Joiner A.V., Berkel L.A.
Q1
The purpose of this study was to explore the roles and responsibilities of Black pastors and how they might contribute to burnout. Five participants (four men, one woman) were selected from a sample of 25 Black pastors who completed the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS) and agreed to be interviewed. Transcendental phenomenology, a qualitative analysis, was used to understand the essence of meaning of burnout among the five interview participants. Four themes were identified from the data, which allowed the essence of meaning of burnout to be constructed: (1) Burnout is Emotionally Tiring; (2) Ministerial Demands and Rewards; (3) Cultural Aspects; and (4) Personal Before Professional. Findings suggest that Black pastors are subject to experiencing emotional, physical, and spiritual fatigue; that denomination-specific tasks and cultural factors (i.e., age, race, and gender) add to the uniqueness and challenges of their pastoral identity; and that the choice to prioritize personal life over professional life ensures the stability in their personal relationships with God and their families.
Blood and Bone: Ancestors, Power, and Sacred Identity Among Nonbinary Black Womxn
Kerney M.A., Malone N., Hargons C.N.
Q1
This community-based participatory action research project led by the C.I.R.C.L.E. (Collective Infiltrating Research to Center Community, Liberation, and Embodiment) employed interpretative phenomenological analysis via eco-womxnist and Afro-Indigenous cosmological frameworks to examine the connection between gendered-racial identity and sacredness among 11 nonbinary Black womxn (NBBW) from the US. Using semi-structured qualitative interviews, we elicited participants’ responses to the following inquiry: Would you we describe being a nonbinary Black womxn as sacred? Why or why not? Data analysis resulted in two themes: (a) Origins of Sacred Powers and (b) Manifestations of Sacred Powers. Four subthemes informed Manifestations of Sacred Powers: Sight/Seers, Osmosis, Intergenerational Healing/Curse Breaking, and Immortality. Participants described these four interconnected manifestations of sacred powers in service of collective and individual liberation, rooted in African spirituality, ancestral power, and the gendered-racial identity. We conclude with implications for future research and clinical practice with NBBW regarding spiritual beliefs, practices, and identities.
Black Parents’ Rationales for Using Specific Ethnic-Racial Socialization Practices With Their Young Children
Coates E.E., de Heer R., McLeod A., Farrise Beauvoir K.
Q1
Existing literature shows Black parents’ preference for using certain ethnic-racial socialization strategies (e.g., cultural socialization, egalitarianism) over others (e.g., preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust) with their young children. We sought to understand parents’ utilization of, and rationales for using, specific ethnic-racial socialization practices with their young children. We conducted focus groups with 26 Black parents of children ages five and under. Researchers generated the following themes through reflexive thematic analysis: reasons for cultural socialization, reasons for silence about race, reasons for preparation for bias, and reasons against promotion of mistrust with young children. Most parents emphasized young children’s racial awareness, self-confidence, feelings of equality, diverse friendships, positivity, and discernment of individual qualities as reasons for using cultural socialization and egalitarianism while avoiding using preparation for bias and promotion of mistrust. Whereas a few parents highlighted the importance of building children’s knowledge and providing comprehensive socialization as reasons for using preparation for bias with young children.
Black Americans’ Racism-Based Traumatic Stress Reactions Following the January 6 Capitol Insurrection
Coates E.E., McLeod A., de Heer R.
Q1
When insurrectionists stormed the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021, Black Americans were especially affected by the racial implications of the attack. Guided by research on vicarious institutional racism, researchers sought to understand how Black Americans reacted to and coped with racism-based stress following the Capitol insurrection. Six focus groups were held with Black Americans living in the DC metropolitan area at the time of the attack. The research team generated the following themes using reflexive thematic analysis: beliefs about White privilege, psychological trauma reactions, racial trauma symptoms, and adaptive coping strategies. Participants described experiencing anger, anxiety, desensitization, powerlessness, and distrust following perceptions of the criminal justice system’s disparate response to the January 6th riot in juxtaposition to Black Lives Matter protests. Participants discussed actions to combat institutional racism, namely, through neighborhood cohesion and ethnic-racial socialization practices. Findings on Black Americans’ emotional, cognitive, and adaptive reactions to the Capitol insurrection supported the racism-based traumatic stress model. Policy implications for reducing racial disparities in policing and supporting Black mental health are provided.
Beyond Code of the Street and Psychopathic Features: Black Masculinity and Self-Compassion
Morley R.H., Taylor M.J., Mason M.
Q1
The role of self-compassion in relation to code of the street, psychopathic features, and masculinity was examined among a sample of 207 African American men. Participants were recruited online through the MTurk website. Using correlational and Preacher and Hayes (2008) bootstrapping analyses, results showed that masculinity was positively correlated with code of the street but not self-compassion or psychopathy. The correlational analyses also revealed that self-compassion displayed a negative correlation with code of the street and psychopathy. Code of the street and psychopathy were also found to be positively associated. The mediational analysis demonstrated that self-compassion mediated the relationship between the code of the street and psychopathy. The potential utilization of self-compassion as a transforming concept is discussed.
A Psychological, Historical Analysis of Post-Slavery Trauma and Post-Slavery Growth: Are They Viable Constructs?
Cross W.E.
Q1
Around the turn of the 20th century, two sociologists, W. E. B. Du Bois, and E. Franklin Frazier, produced separate narratives depicting the legacy of slavery. Du Bois documented both the apparent negative consequences as well the way many ex-slaves achieved “uplift” within a short period of time, following Emancipation. Frazier claimed that exiting slavery the ex-slaves were a broken and damaged community in dire need of assimilation. In the 1930s, when Black psychologists entered the picture, their contribution tended to favor and extend Frazier’s work, resulting in a series of studies documenting racial self-hatred and damage to the self-concept. Inspired by contemporary biological and genealogical research showing trauma can become embedded in DNA structures and transmitted from one generation to another, Joy DeGruy theorized that most African Americans suffer from a Post-Traumatic Slave Syndrome [PTSS]. Missing from DeGruy’s theorizing was mention of theory and research on the way trauma can result in positive psychological outcomes or Post-Traumatic Growth [PTG]. The current work attempts to summarize theory and research for both PTSS and PTG, as each may apply to an analysis of the psychological legacy of slavery.
Seeing One Another: The Creation of the Sawubona Healing Circles
Auguste E., Lodge T., Carrenard N., Onwong’a J.R., Zollicoffer A., Collins D., London L.
Q1
In 2020, the Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi) drew attention to the history of racism in the United States on the creation and exacerbation of extant medical racial inequities to the detriment of Black individuals. Recognizing that solutions based solely in Western frameworks cannot fully address the mental health needs of Black individuals, ABPsi devoted collaborative efforts to develop culturally grounding healing responses for the unique experiences of race-based invisibility and trauma. Additionally, amid the pandemic, individuals of African-descent experienced various mass racial traumas, including a wave of widely publicized police violence. Beginning with COVID-19, these intersecting pandemics of racism elucidated the need for healing, particularly culturally grounding healing. In consultation with the Black Family Summit, ABPsi developed a pilot investigation, the Sawubona Healing Circle (SHC) initiative, which are culturally grounding healing circles to support Black first responders. Using an African-centered worldview, the circles recognize and validate the specific constellation of anti-Black traumas and stressors, equipping them with African-centered healing methods. This paper outlines the theory, development, implementation, and initial evaluation of the SHC intervention.
Identifying Risk and Protective Factors in Research on Mental Health and Black American Adolescents: 1990 Through 2022
Loyd A.B., Humphries M.L., Moore C., Owens C.L., Smith A.M., Williams N.
Q1
This literature review synthesizes research on Black American adolescents’ mental health published between 1990 and 2022 to identify prominent risk factors and highlight key protective factors for their mental health. Two research questions guided this review: (a) How did researchers examine mental health in Black American adolescents; and (b) What are the risk and protective factors that contribute to mental health outcomes among Black American adolescents? Across more than 30 years of investigation and over 300 published articles, researchers identified several prominent factors that pose risk to Black American adolescents’ mental health, including neighborhood conditions, violence exposure and victimization, racism and racial discrimination, and, more recently, the COVID-19 pandemic. However, research also elucidated factors that protect or directly promote Black American adolescents’ mental health, including family, racial and ethnic socialization, racial and ethnic identity, out-of-school time activities, interpersonal relationships, coping, sleep, and social-cognition. The authors conclude with future directions for research and implications for practice.
Black Students’ Mental Help-Seeking Processes During College Matriculation
Ball P.J., Scott E.D., Latimer A., Jones M., Leath S.
Q1
The present study examined how Black students' pre-college beliefs and perceptions of mental health services were linked to their help-seeking behaviors, both within and beyond college counseling services. Using semi-structured interview data and consensual qualitative research methods (CQR), we examined the experiences of 48 Black college women and men (ages 18 -22) sampled from two universities. We identified the following four themes: (a) pre-college experiences shape mental health knowledge (MHK); (b) college adjustment challenges as a precursor to seeking treatment; (c) negative perceptions of college counseling services; and (d) campus community mental health support. Upon seeking counseling services, many students reported encountering a lack of diversity in counseling staff and cultural mistrust. Thus, they indicated opting to seek mental health support in campus community spaces curated by Black student organizations and administrators. Overall, our findings suggest Black students engage in various alternative campus community spaces to support their mental health. We conclude by discussing the need for de- liberate and specialized mental health support for Black students.
Spiritual Surrender: Initial Appraisals of Cancer Diagnoses in Black Christian Women
Hall M.E., Lee G.E., McMartin J., Abernethy A., Shannonhouse L., Park C.L., Aten J., Kapic K., Silverman E.J.
Q1
The basis of the meaning-making model is that distress results from discrepancies between one’s global meaning system and one’s situational appraisals of negative life events. This model suggests a preventative function for religion when religious global beliefs inform situational appraisals in ways that minimize distress. Using consensual qualitative research, we evaluated the initial reactions to a cancer diagnosis of 29 Black Christian women. We examined how the women appraised the cancer diagnosis and how this appraisal was related to reported distress. Our results indicated that lower levels of distress were related to believing that God was faithful, while higher levels of distress were related to beliefs in retributive justice and cancer as a death sentence. Lower distress was further related to spiritual surrender, a religious coping practice that combines entrusting the outcome of one’s cancer experience to God and actively pursuing treatment. We discuss spiritual surrender as a collaborative religious coping strategy and highlight its importance in informing culturally sensitive psychological interventions.
